Managing the Countryside
There is a lot of work that goes into managing the local countryside, much of it undertaken by volunteer groups up and down the country. Some of these groups are well-known national organisations, while some are just a small bunch of local residents that have come together to look after their local green space. Here are some of the many and varied tasks that contribute towards the conservation and management of the countryside for the benefit of wildlife, the environment and the enjoyment of all.
The year is divided roughly into two halves, governed by the natural cycle of the countryside. From October to March is the time of clearing and planting, of hedge laying and coppicing. It is also a time of pond maintenance when the ponds are no longer teeming with life. From April to September, a period governed by birds nesting and raising their young, the tasks are more about construction, a time for installing access gates and stiles (although stiles are increasingly being replaced by gates), resurfacing paths and maintaining sign posts and way markers. Spring and summer are also the time for conducting surveys to assess how management plans are progressing.
For details of the latest countryside management tasks, see the Urban Countryman facebook page: Urban Countryman.
The year is divided roughly into two halves, governed by the natural cycle of the countryside. From October to March is the time of clearing and planting, of hedge laying and coppicing. It is also a time of pond maintenance when the ponds are no longer teeming with life. From April to September, a period governed by birds nesting and raising their young, the tasks are more about construction, a time for installing access gates and stiles (although stiles are increasingly being replaced by gates), resurfacing paths and maintaining sign posts and way markers. Spring and summer are also the time for conducting surveys to assess how management plans are progressing.
For details of the latest countryside management tasks, see the Urban Countryman facebook page: Urban Countryman.
Hedge Laying to Restore an Overgrown Hedgerow
Click on the pictures below to enlarge and to learn about the craft of hedge laying for restoring an overgrown hedgerow.
Coppicing for Woodland Management
Coppicing, or cutting down a tree to ground-level to produce new growth, has been a way of harvesting wood for thousands of years. Most native broadleaved species coppice, but some are stronger than others, with hazel, oak, sweet chestnut, ash, field maple and hornbeam being the trees traditionally coppiced in England. Far from being destructive, coppicing rejuvenates the tree, with some coppice stumps or 'stools' being hundreds of years old, forming an important link back to the ancient woodlands. The growth is faster and more vigorous after coppicing than with new planting because it already has a mature root system from which to grow. It is a sustainable pattern of management, rarely needing any replanting, leaving the soil undisturbed and therefore not subject to the risks of soil erosion. It is a sustainable system of woodland management that allows man to balance his needs with the regenerative power of nature.
Many woodlands have survived, because the woodland had an economic value, providing coppiced timber for a wide variety of uses and providing work for numerous woodland workers, from cutters to merchants to craftsmen to purchasers. In the past, the rural economy was based on coppicing, and coppice products were used for building, fencing, fuel, furniture, charcoal, thatching spars, sticks, tool handles and many other uses. Nothing was wasted. Even the brash (the twiggy end growth) was tied into bundles and used to light bread ovens.
And, as the woodland floor is opened to sunlight, dormant wildflowers are encouraged to flourish, attracting insects, invertebrates, small mammals and birds. It has been estimated that approximately a third of all woodland plants would remain invisible if no clearings were ever created in the canopy. Wildlife, therefore, greatly benefits from this coppicing cycle, as it creates a number of different environments, with grassland blending into bushes and then into trees rather than the harsher transition of grassland straight into the tree line, which provides little shelter and protection. Having trees of different ages and conditions also help to provide a series of varied habitats. Coppicing is therefore one of the few cyclical patterns of symbiosis in nature where humans have an important part in the relationship.
Many woodlands have survived, because the woodland had an economic value, providing coppiced timber for a wide variety of uses and providing work for numerous woodland workers, from cutters to merchants to craftsmen to purchasers. In the past, the rural economy was based on coppicing, and coppice products were used for building, fencing, fuel, furniture, charcoal, thatching spars, sticks, tool handles and many other uses. Nothing was wasted. Even the brash (the twiggy end growth) was tied into bundles and used to light bread ovens.
And, as the woodland floor is opened to sunlight, dormant wildflowers are encouraged to flourish, attracting insects, invertebrates, small mammals and birds. It has been estimated that approximately a third of all woodland plants would remain invisible if no clearings were ever created in the canopy. Wildlife, therefore, greatly benefits from this coppicing cycle, as it creates a number of different environments, with grassland blending into bushes and then into trees rather than the harsher transition of grassland straight into the tree line, which provides little shelter and protection. Having trees of different ages and conditions also help to provide a series of varied habitats. Coppicing is therefore one of the few cyclical patterns of symbiosis in nature where humans have an important part in the relationship.
The Hazel Coppice Year
Click on the pictures below to enlarge and to learn about hazel coppicing and its role in woodland management and regeneration.
Creating Wildlife Habitats
One of the uses for coppiced timber, especially if it is of poor quality, is the creation of wildlife habitats. These can take the form of either a log pile or a dead hedge.
Both will provide refuge for myriad invertebrates and small mammals, which in turn will attract birds into the area. The advantage of a dead hedge is that it will also provide a safe corridor for wildlife to move around and will additionally provide nesting sites for birds.
A double row of stakes and binders - approx. 3ft apart and constructed similar to those in hedge laying - provide the solid structure for the dead hedge. All the rest of the removed timber and brash is then pilled and compacted between the 2 rows.
Both will provide refuge for myriad invertebrates and small mammals, which in turn will attract birds into the area. The advantage of a dead hedge is that it will also provide a safe corridor for wildlife to move around and will additionally provide nesting sites for birds.
A double row of stakes and binders - approx. 3ft apart and constructed similar to those in hedge laying - provide the solid structure for the dead hedge. All the rest of the removed timber and brash is then pilled and compacted between the 2 rows.
Dead hedges (above left) and log piles (above right) both make valuable wildlife habitats, providing shelter and nesting places.
Creating a dead hedge
Above -
Left - Create a double row of stakes. Stakes within each row are spaced approx. 18ins apart. Rows are spaced approx. 3ft apart.
Right - Weave binders into the stakes along each row to provide overall strength.
Below -
Left - Use the remaining timber and brash to fill the space between the rows of bound stakes.
Right - To add to the neatness and strength of the end of the hedge (plus any gaps included to accommodate access) the end stakes can also be bound.
Above -
Left - Create a double row of stakes. Stakes within each row are spaced approx. 18ins apart. Rows are spaced approx. 3ft apart.
Right - Weave binders into the stakes along each row to provide overall strength.
Below -
Left - Use the remaining timber and brash to fill the space between the rows of bound stakes.
Right - To add to the neatness and strength of the end of the hedge (plus any gaps included to accommodate access) the end stakes can also be bound.
Scrub Management
Before and after scrub management (above and below).
This is an important part of maintaining bio-diversity and encouraging a variety of environments, assisting the recovery of both grassland and woodland and the proliferation of wildflowers, bees, insects, butterflies, small mammals and birds.
This is an important part of maintaining bio-diversity and encouraging a variety of environments, assisting the recovery of both grassland and woodland and the proliferation of wildflowers, bees, insects, butterflies, small mammals and birds.
The Importance of Scrub Management
There is a popular school of thought that insists that the countryside should not be managed, that it should be left alone and allowed to return to how it once was - although no one has yet been able to identify the exact point in time that they would like our countryside to be allowed to return to. And, even if they could, is this what they really mean and, more to the point, how would this 'perfect' time be maintained?
Even though some scrub is undoubtedly important and beneficial to the environment, it does need to be managed. Man has managed - or 'interfered', depending upon your viewpoint - the countryside for thousands of years, be it clearing land for growing crops, clearing and fencing it to farm livestock or felling timber as a product to be used for a multitude of purposes. All this management has had a major impact upon the countryside and nature has responded by evolving to adapt to its changing environment and building series of inter-dependencies as part of that evolution.
To suddenly stop manageing the countryside would therefore have a number of impacts, many of which have been happening around us as the countryside has been abandoned, some good, some questionable and some not so good. One of the latter is that, left alone, scrub species will quickly colonise our fields and meadows, to be followed by colonising trees and then dense woodland, in which the paths and tracks will become unusable and access for recreation become impossible. As light and warmth are lost as the woodland canopy extends its shade, many species of wildflower will disappear from our countryside. This in turn will have a detremental impact upon the insects, bees, butterflies and small mammals that depend upon them for survival. And with a declining population of insects and catapillars our birds that in turn depend upon them for their own survival will also decline. Bees - and many other insects - are also vitally important pollinators and, with their populations in decline, we can ill-afford to allow their habitats to be lost.
Many of these sites have already suffered greatly from intensive farming, road building, development and neglect and those that remain are often rare examples that are of high scientific and ecological importance. In the past 50 years we have lost a staggering 97% of our wildflower meadows. Many sites are now protected by special classifications, such as SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest) status. Should we lose the plants, insects, butterflies, bees, birds and mammals that make these sites special, there would be no need for them to have a protected status. Once a site has lost its protection it is only a matter of time before someone with enough money will want to build upon it. And, as so clearly shown in the past few decades, once these valuable sites are lost, they are invariably lost forever.
Even though some scrub is undoubtedly important and beneficial to the environment, it does need to be managed. Man has managed - or 'interfered', depending upon your viewpoint - the countryside for thousands of years, be it clearing land for growing crops, clearing and fencing it to farm livestock or felling timber as a product to be used for a multitude of purposes. All this management has had a major impact upon the countryside and nature has responded by evolving to adapt to its changing environment and building series of inter-dependencies as part of that evolution.
To suddenly stop manageing the countryside would therefore have a number of impacts, many of which have been happening around us as the countryside has been abandoned, some good, some questionable and some not so good. One of the latter is that, left alone, scrub species will quickly colonise our fields and meadows, to be followed by colonising trees and then dense woodland, in which the paths and tracks will become unusable and access for recreation become impossible. As light and warmth are lost as the woodland canopy extends its shade, many species of wildflower will disappear from our countryside. This in turn will have a detremental impact upon the insects, bees, butterflies and small mammals that depend upon them for survival. And with a declining population of insects and catapillars our birds that in turn depend upon them for their own survival will also decline. Bees - and many other insects - are also vitally important pollinators and, with their populations in decline, we can ill-afford to allow their habitats to be lost.
Many of these sites have already suffered greatly from intensive farming, road building, development and neglect and those that remain are often rare examples that are of high scientific and ecological importance. In the past 50 years we have lost a staggering 97% of our wildflower meadows. Many sites are now protected by special classifications, such as SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest) status. Should we lose the plants, insects, butterflies, bees, birds and mammals that make these sites special, there would be no need for them to have a protected status. Once a site has lost its protection it is only a matter of time before someone with enough money will want to build upon it. And, as so clearly shown in the past few decades, once these valuable sites are lost, they are invariably lost forever.
Another useful tool for scrub clearance is the 'Tree Popper' (above). By removing the roots it prevents regrowth and negates the chemical treatment of the stumps left behind by cutting.
The Importance of Preserving Our Chalk Grassland
Much of the scrub clearance we undertake is to preserve our chalk grassland, but why is this important?
Chalk grassland is a rare environment, mostly confined to the NW of continental Europe and SE England, of which less than 2% of what originally existed remains. Environmentally, it is our equivalent of a tropical rainforest. This loss coincides with the loss over the past 50 yeas of a staggering 97% of England's wildflower meadows, a loss that has had a major detrimental impact upon our wildlife - according to the last 'State of Nature' survey, 60% of all UK wildlife species are believed to be in decline.
Chalk grassland is exceptionally rich in plants (including many orchids - bee, man, fly, common spotted, pyramidal and fragrant) and insects, many of which have evolved to take advantage of the wide variety of specialist plants.
Chalk grassland is a rare environment, mostly confined to the NW of continental Europe and SE England, of which less than 2% of what originally existed remains. Environmentally, it is our equivalent of a tropical rainforest. This loss coincides with the loss over the past 50 yeas of a staggering 97% of England's wildflower meadows, a loss that has had a major detrimental impact upon our wildlife - according to the last 'State of Nature' survey, 60% of all UK wildlife species are believed to be in decline.
Chalk grassland is exceptionally rich in plants (including many orchids - bee, man, fly, common spotted, pyramidal and fragrant) and insects, many of which have evolved to take advantage of the wide variety of specialist plants.
Bee, Fly, Common spotted and Pyramidal orchids can all be found on chalk grassland.
The nutrient-poor soil makes it difficult for any single plant species to dominate, making for a very diverse habitat - one of the richest in Western Europe. Up to 50 different plant species, including many that are found exclusively on chalk grassland, can be found in a square metre.
The species-rich grassland also supports invertebrates and wildlife that are either mostly or completely confined to chalk. Chalk grassland also contains rare species of liverworts, mosses and lichens.
Another advantage of chalk is its ability to naturally filter water, through the millions of tiny holes, that subsequently requires minimal treatment, making it cheaper to supply to households.
The species-rich grassland also supports invertebrates and wildlife that are either mostly or completely confined to chalk. Chalk grassland also contains rare species of liverworts, mosses and lichens.
Another advantage of chalk is its ability to naturally filter water, through the millions of tiny holes, that subsequently requires minimal treatment, making it cheaper to supply to households.
Grasscutting
As well as removing invasive scrub an important part of the management of grassland is the annual autumn cutting, where the tough grasses, woody vegetation and small scrub is removed to prevent it from outcompeting the more delicate wildflowers in the following spring. This generally involves a lot of brushcutting and a lot of raking, and is especially challenging on some of the steep downland slopes.
Above - Before and after the annual autumn cut.
Below - The are some jobs for which only brushcutters will do.
Below - The are some jobs for which only brushcutters will do.
Scything
For over a decade, if there was a path to clear or a meadow to be cut we would automatically reach for the brush-cutters. But after just a few short weeks of scything one summer I was a total convert. Despite the brush-cutter having its place when dealing with thicker scrub, my preference would be for a scythe every time!
Some of the advantages of the scythe over the brush-cutter/strimmer are immediately obvious, while others become so with experience.
Some of the advantages of the scythe over the brush-cutter/strimmer are immediately obvious, while others become so with experience.
- One of the biggest advantages is that there is no deafening roar of an engine (a blessing to both user - who at least has ear defenders - and those raking up behind). Multiple scythes are equally quiet - not something that can be said for multiple brush-cutters. Rarely does the sudden silence of a stopped brush-cutter go unremarked!
- A scythe is a far more sociable tool to use.
- Scythes don't pollute through exhaust fumes - something the user is constantly breathing in.
- There is no danger of a speeding blade sending hidden objects flying through the air (razor-sharp flint, shards of broken glass or the contents of dog poo bags).
- They don't splatter the user with dangerous sap (such as from wild parsnip).
- There are no vibration issues to be considered with long term use.
- There are no expensive training costs (or qualification requirements before a scythe can be used).
- The length of the blade and wider cutting arc means that a scythe clears a bigger area in a single sweep.
- Scythes are more effective (and safer) at dealing with very tall vegetation.
- Scythes don't mulch the cut vegetation, making it far easier to rake and clear.
- Scythes are far lighter and put less of a strain on the body.
- With users of comparable experience a scythe has been proven to be consistently faster at cutting a given area.
- Scythes are cheaper to buy and maintain (you can easily buy 2 scythes, spare blades and maintenance tools for the cost of a single brush-cutter).
- They are easier to maintain in the field.
- They are easier to transport.
- There is little that can go wrong with a scythe and they are not therefore prone to frustrating breakdowns.
- With a scythe it is possible to work right up to a fence, tree or sapling without fear of causing damage.
- There is no need for PPE.
- There is no hot engine right beside you on a hot day.
- You don't have to stop to refuel (with the additional ongoing fuel cost to factor into the overall equipment cost).
- Scythes are easier to put down and pick up if you want to temporarily deal with another task (such as clearing a fallen branch).
- Scythes are a LOT more fun to use.
Above Left: Before scything, Above Right: After scything.
Plant Species Monitoring
An important part of any management/conservation work, especially on the managed grassland, is monitoring its progress against expected results.
This is done by selecting random quadrats across the site and recording what is found against the list of characteristics and species expected. This includes: Av sward height, % herbs, %scrub, % bare ground, desirable species found (against a list for the particular environment) and undesirable species found.
These results can then be analysed and compared against previous results to determine the effectiveness of the management programme.
This is done by selecting random quadrats across the site and recording what is found against the list of characteristics and species expected. This includes: Av sward height, % herbs, %scrub, % bare ground, desirable species found (against a list for the particular environment) and undesirable species found.
These results can then be analysed and compared against previous results to determine the effectiveness of the management programme.
Selecting a random quadrat and recording the findings.
Butterfly Monitoring
April through to September is also a time for monitoring butterflies - the UK is home to over 50 species of butterfly. This will also help to give an indication of how site management is progressing, but also forms part of a national monitoring programme that records species population as they respond to the challenges of environmental changes, pollution levels and climate change.
Top - Small tortoiseshell, Small copper. Dark green fritillary
Below - Brimstone, Marbled White, Holly blue
Below - Brimstone, Marbled White, Holly blue
Tree Planting
If you were to engage in only one thing in your lifetime to help the environment it should be to plant trees.
Trees play a vitally important role in helping to clean the air (by absorbing pollution), absorbing carbon, producing oxygen, alleviating flooding, regulating temperature, providing shade and shelter, acting as wind breaks, and providing food and refuge for wildlife. They also absorb noise pollution from busy roads and motorways – although less roads and more trees would be a far better balance for our environment. They are pleasing on they eye and help to reduce stress - studies continually show that having easy access to woods, trees and green spaces is beneficial to our physical and mental wellbeing.
Trees and woods play an important role in our national identity, culture, history and psyche. Just think of many our fairytales and folklore. The defence of our country depended for so long upon our navy, the anthem of which is still, ‘Hearts of Oak’. Historically, our woods played an immensely important role in this country’s economy, from ship and house building to furniture making and farming (sheep hurdles, hedge laying and crop supports to name just a few). You just have to think back to the massive public outcry when the government of the day proposed to sell off our public woods into private ownership to see how much we relate to trees and how much they mean to us.
Trees play a vitally important role in helping to clean the air (by absorbing pollution), absorbing carbon, producing oxygen, alleviating flooding, regulating temperature, providing shade and shelter, acting as wind breaks, and providing food and refuge for wildlife. They also absorb noise pollution from busy roads and motorways – although less roads and more trees would be a far better balance for our environment. They are pleasing on they eye and help to reduce stress - studies continually show that having easy access to woods, trees and green spaces is beneficial to our physical and mental wellbeing.
Trees and woods play an important role in our national identity, culture, history and psyche. Just think of many our fairytales and folklore. The defence of our country depended for so long upon our navy, the anthem of which is still, ‘Hearts of Oak’. Historically, our woods played an immensely important role in this country’s economy, from ship and house building to furniture making and farming (sheep hurdles, hedge laying and crop supports to name just a few). You just have to think back to the massive public outcry when the government of the day proposed to sell off our public woods into private ownership to see how much we relate to trees and how much they mean to us.
Some tree facts:
1. In the last century, Great Britain lost 90% of coppiced woodland and half of its ancient woodland has been lost or damaged.
2. There are approximately 130m native ash trees at risk from ash dieback, which would also affect more than 1,000 species associated with ash, some of which are entirely or heavily dependent on it.
3. The total value of UK woodlands was estimated in 2015 at about £270bn. If 250,000 hectares of woodlands were planted near to towns and cities, they would generate societal net benefits in excess of £500m a year.
4. Between 1991 and 2100, it is estimated that the total financial benefits of the 520 km2 (200 sq miles) of the National Forest being planted alongside ancient woodland in the Midlands will be £909m – far in excess of the estimated costs of £188m.
5. A study in Tyneside found that being within 500m of deciduous trees added 8% to property values. The development of community woodland on the former Bold Colliery site in St Helens is estimated to have directly enhanced property values in the surrounding area by £15m (Forestry Commission 2005).
6. Heat-related stress accounts for about 1,100 premature deaths a year in the UK. Informed selection and strategic placement of trees and green infrastructure in cities can cool the air by between 2°C and 8°C.
7. Mental ill health costs the NHS £12.5bn and the economy £23.1bn a year. In a survey for Natural England, 85% of those visiting woodlands said it made them feel calm and relaxed. In another survey, the Natural Forestry Commission found that 95% of people said woodlands were “places where I can relax and de-stress”.
8. Modelling around the river Parrett in south-west England found that floodplain woodland could increase flood storage by 71%. In cities, the addition of a street tree could reduce storm water runoff by 50-62% in a 9m2 area, compared with asphalt alone, according to test plots in Manchester.
9. 595m tonnes of CO2 are stored in UK forests, and net uptake per year is between 9m and 15m tonnes. The Committee on Climate Change’s guidelines are that abatement of CO2 is deemed cost-effective at anything less than £100 per tonne; woodlands planted for multiple objectives can additionally deliver carbon abatement at significantly less than £25 per tonne.
So, given the opportunity, why would you not want to plant trees?
1. In the last century, Great Britain lost 90% of coppiced woodland and half of its ancient woodland has been lost or damaged.
2. There are approximately 130m native ash trees at risk from ash dieback, which would also affect more than 1,000 species associated with ash, some of which are entirely or heavily dependent on it.
3. The total value of UK woodlands was estimated in 2015 at about £270bn. If 250,000 hectares of woodlands were planted near to towns and cities, they would generate societal net benefits in excess of £500m a year.
4. Between 1991 and 2100, it is estimated that the total financial benefits of the 520 km2 (200 sq miles) of the National Forest being planted alongside ancient woodland in the Midlands will be £909m – far in excess of the estimated costs of £188m.
5. A study in Tyneside found that being within 500m of deciduous trees added 8% to property values. The development of community woodland on the former Bold Colliery site in St Helens is estimated to have directly enhanced property values in the surrounding area by £15m (Forestry Commission 2005).
6. Heat-related stress accounts for about 1,100 premature deaths a year in the UK. Informed selection and strategic placement of trees and green infrastructure in cities can cool the air by between 2°C and 8°C.
7. Mental ill health costs the NHS £12.5bn and the economy £23.1bn a year. In a survey for Natural England, 85% of those visiting woodlands said it made them feel calm and relaxed. In another survey, the Natural Forestry Commission found that 95% of people said woodlands were “places where I can relax and de-stress”.
8. Modelling around the river Parrett in south-west England found that floodplain woodland could increase flood storage by 71%. In cities, the addition of a street tree could reduce storm water runoff by 50-62% in a 9m2 area, compared with asphalt alone, according to test plots in Manchester.
9. 595m tonnes of CO2 are stored in UK forests, and net uptake per year is between 9m and 15m tonnes. The Committee on Climate Change’s guidelines are that abatement of CO2 is deemed cost-effective at anything less than £100 per tonne; woodlands planted for multiple objectives can additionally deliver carbon abatement at significantly less than £25 per tonne.
So, given the opportunity, why would you not want to plant trees?
Two of my favourite proverbs both involve the planting of trees:
A society grows great when old men plant trees whose shade they know they shall never sit in - Greek proverb.
The best time to plant a tree was 20 years ago, the second best time is now - Chinese proverb.
A society grows great when old men plant trees whose shade they know they shall never sit in - Greek proverb.
The best time to plant a tree was 20 years ago, the second best time is now - Chinese proverb.
Fence Construction
Fences are used for a number of reasons: to mark boundaries, to prevent access and to keep livestock in. Where wire fencing is relatively cheap and easy to erect, it cannot compete with look of a well-constructed wooden fence.
Ensuring all the fence posts are aligned and attaching the tensioned stock fencing.
Access Gate Installation
Where there is fencing there clearly has to be a means of access and we would install these at the same time.
The picture (left) is of a standard kissing gate and box construction, generally constructed as access to fields where livestock will be contained. The box frame ensures that the gate cannot be accidentally left open. Adding a spring to the gate and/or offsetting the alignment of the top and bottom hinges will also ensue that the gate swings shut. The added wire not only stops adventurous sheep from getting under the gate, more importantly it keep uncontrolled dogs out.
The picture (right) is a gate specially designed for both standard and disabled access (for which a key is required).
The 3rd type of gate we may install is a longer field gate for vehicular access.
The picture (left) is of a standard kissing gate and box construction, generally constructed as access to fields where livestock will be contained. The box frame ensures that the gate cannot be accidentally left open. Adding a spring to the gate and/or offsetting the alignment of the top and bottom hinges will also ensue that the gate swings shut. The added wire not only stops adventurous sheep from getting under the gate, more importantly it keep uncontrolled dogs out.
The picture (right) is a gate specially designed for both standard and disabled access (for which a key is required).
The 3rd type of gate we may install is a longer field gate for vehicular access.
Path Maintenance
Creating and maintaining (including resurfacing and cutting back vegetation) is another essential part of encouraging access to the countryside.
Left alone, nature will rapidly encroach upon a path, and nothing dissuades use as much as having to fight through a thick belt of brambles and nettles.
The picture (below left) shows a grassland path after we had cut back the grass edge that had encroached to leave just a narrow strip of limestone path visible.
The path (below right) shows a woodland path that had been narrowed by the dense vegetation encroaching from both side, for which a brushcutter is an extremely valuable piece of equipment.
Left alone, nature will rapidly encroach upon a path, and nothing dissuades use as much as having to fight through a thick belt of brambles and nettles.
The picture (below left) shows a grassland path after we had cut back the grass edge that had encroached to leave just a narrow strip of limestone path visible.
The path (below right) shows a woodland path that had been narrowed by the dense vegetation encroaching from both side, for which a brushcutter is an extremely valuable piece of equipment.
Another important task is ensuring paths are cleared of fallen or dangerously overhanging trees and branches, especially after a storm or heavy snowfall.
Where paths have deteriorated to a point of being unusable or dangerous it is sometimes necessary for the top surface to be removed and replaced with a new layer of compacted limestone (below).
Pond Maintenance
Ponds play a key role in the environment and need to be cleared of invasive and smothering non-native plant species. Occasionally, larger tasks, such as re-lining, enlarging or even constructing a new pond are undertaken.
And it is quite remarkable what else has been dragged out of ponds over the years - a pressure washer, sat navs, laptops, numerous DVDS and a large bag containing the skeleton remains of a small dog.
These before and after pictures (above) show how ponds can be choked by vegetation spreadining from the bank. Although the area surrounding the pond after clearance looks bare it will rapidly green over in the following spring.
And it is quite remarkable what else has been dragged out of ponds over the years - a pressure washer, sat navs, laptops, numerous DVDS and a large bag containing the skeleton remains of a small dog.
These before and after pictures (above) show how ponds can be choked by vegetation spreadining from the bank. Although the area surrounding the pond after clearance looks bare it will rapidly green over in the following spring.
Although much encroaching vegetation and invasive pond weed can be dragged out from the bank, sometimes you just have to be prepared to get in.
It is not unusual for ponds to play a key part in local legend, and this one above is no exception.
The busy road, along which cars race by just a few feet from the water’s edge was once a busy coaching route. One stormy night, a stagecoach was racing along the rutted surface, which in those days passed between two ponds, when it slipped from the road and toppled into the pond. The style of coach was said to have had only one door, which became trapped underneath as it slipped beneath the surface, imprisoning all those inside and taking them to a watery grave. The legend has it that the stagecoach was also carrying a trunk of valuables that have never been recovered. To this day there are still people who claim to have stood opposite the pond in the dead of night and have heard the sound of horses thundering past. Others, with probably a little too much imagination, have claimed to have seen the ghostly carriage rise from the pond with passengers screaming at the window.
Needless to say we have never found any evidence of a coach or its treasure.
The busy road, along which cars race by just a few feet from the water’s edge was once a busy coaching route. One stormy night, a stagecoach was racing along the rutted surface, which in those days passed between two ponds, when it slipped from the road and toppled into the pond. The style of coach was said to have had only one door, which became trapped underneath as it slipped beneath the surface, imprisoning all those inside and taking them to a watery grave. The legend has it that the stagecoach was also carrying a trunk of valuables that have never been recovered. To this day there are still people who claim to have stood opposite the pond in the dead of night and have heard the sound of horses thundering past. Others, with probably a little too much imagination, have claimed to have seen the ghostly carriage rise from the pond with passengers screaming at the window.
Needless to say we have never found any evidence of a coach or its treasure.
Ponds as Important Habitats for Biodiversity
Ponds appear as both natural and man-made features in out landscape, although the latter far outnumber the former, with ponds having been created for a number of purposes: village ponds, mill ponds, fish ponds, ornamental ponds, field ponds providing water for livestock and even to supply ice to the ice houses of big country estates. However, as the landscape has been managed over thousands of years for farming and development many of the natural ponds have disappeared.
It is therefore the man-made ponds that now play a significant role in the maintaining of a healthy and vitally important biodiversity. They are believed to hold more invertibrates (over 100 species in a good pond), freshwater plants and animals, including rare and threatened species of toads and newts, than our rivers and lakes. Indeed, many freshwater species rely on our ponds for their survival. Ponds are also important habitats for wetland plants (nearly 400 species are found in ponds), fish (including carp and rudd) and birds, which either inhabit the pond or are attracted to them to feed by the large number of insects.
Ponds, however, do need management, as they also attract a number of invasive plants that can completely take over a pond, blocking out the valuable light and reducing the oxygen level. There is also the ever-present, entirely man-made problem of litter, with ponds being used for the dumping of a wide variety of objects from bicycles to shopping trollies to plastic bags, which may be the modern-day equivalent of votive offerings to the water spirits but most likey are the result of a society where littering is an acceptable pasttime.
It is therefore the man-made ponds that now play a significant role in the maintaining of a healthy and vitally important biodiversity. They are believed to hold more invertibrates (over 100 species in a good pond), freshwater plants and animals, including rare and threatened species of toads and newts, than our rivers and lakes. Indeed, many freshwater species rely on our ponds for their survival. Ponds are also important habitats for wetland plants (nearly 400 species are found in ponds), fish (including carp and rudd) and birds, which either inhabit the pond or are attracted to them to feed by the large number of insects.
Ponds, however, do need management, as they also attract a number of invasive plants that can completely take over a pond, blocking out the valuable light and reducing the oxygen level. There is also the ever-present, entirely man-made problem of litter, with ponds being used for the dumping of a wide variety of objects from bicycles to shopping trollies to plastic bags, which may be the modern-day equivalent of votive offerings to the water spirits but most likey are the result of a society where littering is an acceptable pasttime.
Sign Post and Way Marker Construction and Installation
Installing way markers, sign posts and information boards is aimed at encouraging people to explore the countryside.
As with fence posts this will involved digging more holes - up to 3ft deep depending upon the length of the post.
Apart from buying in the posts all sign posts and way markers are constructed and completed by the volunteers, ready for installation.
As with fence posts this will involved digging more holes - up to 3ft deep depending upon the length of the post.
Apart from buying in the posts all sign posts and way markers are constructed and completed by the volunteers, ready for installation.
Importance of Hedgerows
Traditionally used to mark boundaries, enclose land, provide stock-proof barriers (where they were often planted on a bank parallel to a ditch), hedgerows have largely been superseded by the extensive use of wire fencing. There are however significant benefits of planting hedgerows that cannot be replicated with wire. Hedgerows act as windbreaks to prevent soil erosion, protect crops and provide shelter and shade for livestock, and costal hedges protect property from the ravaging effects of strong, salt-laden winds. Hedgerows are also planted to screen properties. Above all, hedgerows have become an important feature of our landscape and its history.
They also act as a key contributor to wildlife conservation, providing an important haven and food source for various plant species, insects, bees, birds and small mammals, and acting as a network of navigation aids for bats. It is noticeable that on the larger 'industrial' arable farms of East Anglia and the Midlands, where huge fields of cereal crops have created a monoculture, lacking significant wild verges, tree lines and hedgerows for almost as far as the eye can see, there is also a significant lack of wildlife. As a result, the populations of many, once common, farmland birds are now in serious decline and many have disappeared entirely from our landscape.
In times past the hedgerow would also have been an important source of wild fruits and berries (gooseberries, raspberries, cherries, brambles, crab apples and rosehips) that were made into jams and chutneys to supplement the meagre winter fare, as well as medicinal herbs. Hedgerows would also have provided valuable fuel as a by-product of their management to heat cold and draughty workers' cottages.
Hawthorn, quick-growing, adaptable to all situations, hardy, impenetrable, long-lasting and relatively disease-free, has traditionally been the hedging of choice and would be interspersed with other species, such as blackthorn, buckthorn, dog rose, yew, holly, ash, crab apple, spindle and dog wood. Hedgerows would often also include trees such as oak or elm to add variety to the hedgeline.
Finally, a well-maintained hedgerow achieves something that no amount of wire ever can; its adds beauty to the countryside, enriching our experience and creating the patchwork of fields that is quintessentially the English countryside.
They also act as a key contributor to wildlife conservation, providing an important haven and food source for various plant species, insects, bees, birds and small mammals, and acting as a network of navigation aids for bats. It is noticeable that on the larger 'industrial' arable farms of East Anglia and the Midlands, where huge fields of cereal crops have created a monoculture, lacking significant wild verges, tree lines and hedgerows for almost as far as the eye can see, there is also a significant lack of wildlife. As a result, the populations of many, once common, farmland birds are now in serious decline and many have disappeared entirely from our landscape.
In times past the hedgerow would also have been an important source of wild fruits and berries (gooseberries, raspberries, cherries, brambles, crab apples and rosehips) that were made into jams and chutneys to supplement the meagre winter fare, as well as medicinal herbs. Hedgerows would also have provided valuable fuel as a by-product of their management to heat cold and draughty workers' cottages.
Hawthorn, quick-growing, adaptable to all situations, hardy, impenetrable, long-lasting and relatively disease-free, has traditionally been the hedging of choice and would be interspersed with other species, such as blackthorn, buckthorn, dog rose, yew, holly, ash, crab apple, spindle and dog wood. Hedgerows would often also include trees such as oak or elm to add variety to the hedgeline.
Finally, a well-maintained hedgerow achieves something that no amount of wire ever can; its adds beauty to the countryside, enriching our experience and creating the patchwork of fields that is quintessentially the English countryside.
Above - Clearing the site of the hedgerow of competing vegetation (left) and planting a mix of hedgerow species (right) - hawthorn, blackthorn, hazel, crab apple, dog rose, spindle.
Below - The progress of the hedgerow after 3 years (left), and after 7 years (right).
Below - The progress of the hedgerow after 3 years (left), and after 7 years (right).
Installing Nest Boxes
Additional to creating and managing suitable wildlife habitats, such as hedgerows, dead hedges and log piles, wildlife can be given an encouraging hand by building and installing nest boxes.
Battling the Alien Invader
The Victorian obsession with transporting exotic flora from around the world to plant in the gardens of fashionable country gentlemen, who wished to impress their peers, created an unforeseen problem that we are still battling today, over a century later. Had these non-native species remained within the confines of their new environment they would, no doubt, have continued to be admired and that would have been the end of the story. However, with the inevitability of spring following winter, these species, no doubt with a little well-meaning assistance, eventually escaped and found their freedom very much to their liking. One such escapee is Rhododendron Ponticum, an evergreen shrub, with short-lived fragrant purple flowers. However, Rhododendron Ponticum is no respecter of boundaries and has spread to cover a wide variety of habitats, from heathland and moorland to ancient woodland, from South Dorset to North Wales to Scotland. In the South-east, the tremendous surge in colonisation occurred after the great storm of 1987, when the devastated canopy opened up the woodland floor for this alien invader to colonise.
In one local woodland it took just a few short years to cover large tracts (estimated in the region of 50-60 acres) of the wood’s 200 acres, spreading by any means possible. It coppices; it seeds, with each flower head producing in excess of three thousand seeds; it suckers and it layers, the drooping branches putting down new roots wherever they touch the ground. And to ensure that grazing animals won’t touch it, the leaves, as well as being toxic are tough and unpalatable, while the sticky substance exuded by the new buds act as a deterrent to insects. It is difficult not to admire its colonising and survival tactics until one remembers that this plant supports little insect life, bird life or any other native fauna and flora as it rapidly drowns out large areas of bluebells, wood anemones and tree saplings. The leaf litter is toxic and little can live beneath its spreading limbs, which form a dense, dark shade, ensuring that wildflowers are stifled and the natural regeneration of tree species cannot occur. This in turn leads to the loss of native butterflies, whose caterpillars are deprived of the necessary wildflowers to feed upon, bees, insects, birds and mammals. Now it poses an even greater threat as it has been identified as a carrier of the fungal disease responsible for Sudden Oak Death, currently causing devastation amongst oak and larch in the West Country.
However, it is not just the native fauna and flora that suffer. People with sensitive skin can find that any form of contact with this plant will bring them out in a rash and cases of non-fatal human poisoning have also been reported, caused by the consumption of honey produced from the flowers. There are even reports from vets of the suspected fatal poisoning of dogs that have chewed Rhododendron sticks.
So another task is to carry the battle to these invaders.
In one local woodland it took just a few short years to cover large tracts (estimated in the region of 50-60 acres) of the wood’s 200 acres, spreading by any means possible. It coppices; it seeds, with each flower head producing in excess of three thousand seeds; it suckers and it layers, the drooping branches putting down new roots wherever they touch the ground. And to ensure that grazing animals won’t touch it, the leaves, as well as being toxic are tough and unpalatable, while the sticky substance exuded by the new buds act as a deterrent to insects. It is difficult not to admire its colonising and survival tactics until one remembers that this plant supports little insect life, bird life or any other native fauna and flora as it rapidly drowns out large areas of bluebells, wood anemones and tree saplings. The leaf litter is toxic and little can live beneath its spreading limbs, which form a dense, dark shade, ensuring that wildflowers are stifled and the natural regeneration of tree species cannot occur. This in turn leads to the loss of native butterflies, whose caterpillars are deprived of the necessary wildflowers to feed upon, bees, insects, birds and mammals. Now it poses an even greater threat as it has been identified as a carrier of the fungal disease responsible for Sudden Oak Death, currently causing devastation amongst oak and larch in the West Country.
However, it is not just the native fauna and flora that suffer. People with sensitive skin can find that any form of contact with this plant will bring them out in a rash and cases of non-fatal human poisoning have also been reported, caused by the consumption of honey produced from the flowers. There are even reports from vets of the suspected fatal poisoning of dogs that have chewed Rhododendron sticks.
So another task is to carry the battle to these invaders.
Two of my favourite hand tools.
My Silky saw (above), razor sharp and thin enough to get in amongst close growing stems where a bow saw can't reach.
A Silky pole saw (below), an absolute must for working in tangled woodland. This saw will get you out of a whole multitude of tangled overhead situations.
My Silky saw (above), razor sharp and thin enough to get in amongst close growing stems where a bow saw can't reach.
A Silky pole saw (below), an absolute must for working in tangled woodland. This saw will get you out of a whole multitude of tangled overhead situations.
Ragwort: The Good, The Bad and The Not So Ugly
Ragwort, with its mass of bright yellow flowers and ragged leaves on tall erect stalks, is a poisonous plant that can be a menace to livestock, especially horses, which can die from irreversible liver damage caused by eating the dried plant in hay – they will not touch it in its fresh and bitter form – where it loses its bitterness but not its toxicity (although the number of actual deaths each year is hotly debated, with little evidence to support some of the wilder claims). It is, however, deemed to be of sufficient threat that under the Weeds Act 1959 the Secretary of State may serve an enforcement notice on the occupier of land on which ragwort is growing, requiring them to take action to prevent its spread. And the subsequent Ragwort Control Act 2003 promotes the more efficient control of ragwort where it is deemed a threat to animal welfare.
Ragwort is naturally a biennial plant, taking two years to mature to flowering and is commonly seen adding a welcome splash of bright colour to otherwise uninspiring environments (e.g. motorway verges and railway cuttings). In its first year it forms a dense rosette of leaves growing close to the earth and is at its most poisonous. The leaves give off an unpleasant smell when bruised, hence local names such as ‘Stinking Willie’ and ‘Mare’s Fart’. The cinnabar moth turns the poison contained in the plant to its own advantage, the black and yellow-banded caterpillars absorbing its toxin to deter predators.
However, the story of this plant is very far from all bad. It is, actually, a British wildflower of significant importance to many insects and therefore has a major role to play in maintaining a healthy biodiversity and balance of nature. It is believed that over 100 invertebrate species can be found on ragwort, with at least 30 species, some rare or scarce, relying entirely upon it for their existence - any eradication of the plant would therefore prove to be fatal for their populations. It is also an important source of nectar and pollen for hundreds of species of bees, butterflies, moths, beetles and flies and, in fact ranks as one of the most visited plants by butterflies and insects.
For more information on the benefits of ragwort, plus a look at the 'facts' behind some of the many popular claims about this native wildflower see my following article:
https://theurbancountryman.weebly.com/blog/ragwort-the-good-the-bad-and-the-not-so-ugly3146291
Ragwort is naturally a biennial plant, taking two years to mature to flowering and is commonly seen adding a welcome splash of bright colour to otherwise uninspiring environments (e.g. motorway verges and railway cuttings). In its first year it forms a dense rosette of leaves growing close to the earth and is at its most poisonous. The leaves give off an unpleasant smell when bruised, hence local names such as ‘Stinking Willie’ and ‘Mare’s Fart’. The cinnabar moth turns the poison contained in the plant to its own advantage, the black and yellow-banded caterpillars absorbing its toxin to deter predators.
However, the story of this plant is very far from all bad. It is, actually, a British wildflower of significant importance to many insects and therefore has a major role to play in maintaining a healthy biodiversity and balance of nature. It is believed that over 100 invertebrate species can be found on ragwort, with at least 30 species, some rare or scarce, relying entirely upon it for their existence - any eradication of the plant would therefore prove to be fatal for their populations. It is also an important source of nectar and pollen for hundreds of species of bees, butterflies, moths, beetles and flies and, in fact ranks as one of the most visited plants by butterflies and insects.
For more information on the benefits of ragwort, plus a look at the 'facts' behind some of the many popular claims about this native wildflower see my following article:
https://theurbancountryman.weebly.com/blog/ragwort-the-good-the-bad-and-the-not-so-ugly3146291
At some point when constructing or maintaining footpaths that path is going to ascend a slope or hillside, which will necessitate the digging in of a set of steps.
If you are lucky the steps will involve easy digging on a slope right beside the trailer carrying all the tools, timber and equipment. If you are not so lucky it will involve mattocking out large flint and thick roots and having to carry everything considerable distances (often up/down the steps as you create them).
If you are lucky the steps will involve easy digging on a slope right beside the trailer carrying all the tools, timber and equipment. If you are not so lucky it will involve mattocking out large flint and thick roots and having to carry everything considerable distances (often up/down the steps as you create them).
Above - If you are lucky you won't have to mattock out large flints or through thick roots (left) and you won't have to carry all the tools and equipment long distances (right). Unfortunately, luck isn't always on our side.
Below - Replacing a set of worn steps, before and after.
Below - Replacing a set of worn steps, before and after.
Litter Picking
There is a reason why I have left litter picking until near the end - clearing up behind lazy people is probably the least favourite of tasks. Not only is it often unpleasant - especially clearing all those dog poo bags that have been hung from branches or just thrown into the bushes or long grass - it takes up time that could be better spent doing something constructive. However, until people learn to either use the bins provided or take their litter home, we will continue to do it to ensure that more responsible people can continue to enjoy the countryside.
Below - the result of just one morning's litter picking, including an empty suitcase.
Below - the result of just one morning's litter picking, including an empty suitcase.
Working in the Countryside is its own Reward
The sun shines out of a clear blue autumn sky, not the intense, burning sun of summer but a gentle warming sun, bathing the surrounding countryside in its softer light. Beneath it, across the narrow valley, the opposite slope is resplendent in its rich autumnal mosaic: purples, reds, oranges and yellows, framing the green open fields. As autumn days go, this one is as close to artistic perfection as it is possible to get, except that no artist’s palette could match nature’s range of colour and the endless shifting patterns and shadows. However, the stunning display is transient, part of the remorseless cyclical march towards the shorter, colder days that will eventually give way to winter, when these colours will be only a memory with which to keep us going through the dark months until spring returns again to brighten these same slopes and lift our spirits.
We break from our labours on the hillside, having already cleared a substantial bay in the dense thorny thicket. Hawthorn, blackthorn and dogwood lay in untidy piles, ready to add to the hungry fire. From somewhere amongst the trees opposite a sudden cry cuts through the silence: kee-kee-kee. Then again: kee-kee-kee. We search for the source. Kee-kee-kee. There it is, the unmistakeable shape of a bird of prey crossing the valley towards us. In the bright sunlight its blue-grey head, chestnut back and wings and pale and black spotted underside are clearly visible. It is a male kestrel.
Despite being virtually eliminated in the 19th century by gamekeepers, the kestrel, thanks to its adaptability, has made a remarkable comeback to become our most common falcon. Not only has it learned to take advantage of new hunting areas, becoming become a familiar sight hovering by roadsides and even in our town centres, it is also able to switch to different prey whenever a population slump occurs in its main food source, the field vole, and will feed on small birds, insects and even worms.
It ‘quarters’ its chosen hunting ground, hovering for a while before flying a short distance on fast, shallow beats of its pointed wings, interspersed with gliding before rising and hovering again. When it moves its movements are agile and purposeful, when it glides it is a thing of grace and beauty and when it hovers it is full of focused determination, a lethal shadow on the ground below. It drifts away and seems to rise without effort as though caught by a sudden up-draught. It hovers, no more than a dozen feet above the ground and just the other side of the Land Rover; it obviously regards us as little threat. Wings silently flutter and tilt, working to maintain its position in the gentle breeze, tail spread, body angling but head perfectly still, eyes locked onto the ground, an attitude that has earned it the common names of windhover and hoverhawk.
Suddenly, with half-closed wings, it stoops in an attempt to capture its prey in its sharp talons. For a while it is lost from view, hidden in the long grass and scrub, but then it reappears. It repeats its hover and stoops a second time, but once again it is unsuccessful. Then, rather than waste more energy, it decides to fly back across the valley to its perch.
Apart from flying displays this is the closest I have ever come to one of our most charismatic birds of prey. But this is no organised display; there is no secure glove to return to and no guaranteed food as a reward. This is life and death and the only reward for success is to live to hunt another day. It is something that you can watch many times on wildlife documentaries but nothing compares to witnessing the spectacle with your own eyes. It is one of the rewards of working in the countryside.
We break from our labours on the hillside, having already cleared a substantial bay in the dense thorny thicket. Hawthorn, blackthorn and dogwood lay in untidy piles, ready to add to the hungry fire. From somewhere amongst the trees opposite a sudden cry cuts through the silence: kee-kee-kee. Then again: kee-kee-kee. We search for the source. Kee-kee-kee. There it is, the unmistakeable shape of a bird of prey crossing the valley towards us. In the bright sunlight its blue-grey head, chestnut back and wings and pale and black spotted underside are clearly visible. It is a male kestrel.
Despite being virtually eliminated in the 19th century by gamekeepers, the kestrel, thanks to its adaptability, has made a remarkable comeback to become our most common falcon. Not only has it learned to take advantage of new hunting areas, becoming become a familiar sight hovering by roadsides and even in our town centres, it is also able to switch to different prey whenever a population slump occurs in its main food source, the field vole, and will feed on small birds, insects and even worms.
It ‘quarters’ its chosen hunting ground, hovering for a while before flying a short distance on fast, shallow beats of its pointed wings, interspersed with gliding before rising and hovering again. When it moves its movements are agile and purposeful, when it glides it is a thing of grace and beauty and when it hovers it is full of focused determination, a lethal shadow on the ground below. It drifts away and seems to rise without effort as though caught by a sudden up-draught. It hovers, no more than a dozen feet above the ground and just the other side of the Land Rover; it obviously regards us as little threat. Wings silently flutter and tilt, working to maintain its position in the gentle breeze, tail spread, body angling but head perfectly still, eyes locked onto the ground, an attitude that has earned it the common names of windhover and hoverhawk.
Suddenly, with half-closed wings, it stoops in an attempt to capture its prey in its sharp talons. For a while it is lost from view, hidden in the long grass and scrub, but then it reappears. It repeats its hover and stoops a second time, but once again it is unsuccessful. Then, rather than waste more energy, it decides to fly back across the valley to its perch.
Apart from flying displays this is the closest I have ever come to one of our most charismatic birds of prey. But this is no organised display; there is no secure glove to return to and no guaranteed food as a reward. This is life and death and the only reward for success is to live to hunt another day. It is something that you can watch many times on wildlife documentaries but nothing compares to witnessing the spectacle with your own eyes. It is one of the rewards of working in the countryside.
The Next Time You Sit...
And the next time you sit on a well-positioned seat to enjoy the wonderful views of the countryside, spare a thought that the seat you are sitting on didn't get there by accident.
For details of the latest countryside management tasks, see the Urban Countryman facebook page: Urban Countryman.